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Magnet Glossary

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A

Air Gap

An air gap is non-magnetic material present between a magnet and an attracted object or between two magnets attracting each other. It acts as a break in the magnetic circuit, weakening the magnetic hold. The air gap can be filled with air, wood, plastic, aluminum, paint, or any uneven surface. Refer to the ‘Pull-gap’ curve entry for a description of how pull strength decreases as the size of an air gap increases.

Alnico

A family of iron alloys primarily composed of aluminum, nickel, and cobalt. Known for high magnetic strength and resistance to demagnetization.

Anisotropic

A magnet is described as anisotropic if all its magnetic domains are aligned in the same direction, achieved during the manufacturing process to ensure maximum magnetic output. An anisotropic magnet can only be magnetized along its magnetic axis set during manufacture. Attempts to magnetize the magnet in any other direction will result in no magnetism. Anisotropic magnets are much stronger than isotropic magnets, which have randomly oriented magnetic domains producing less magnetism. However, isotropic magnets can be magnetized in any direction.

Annealing

A heat treatment process used to soften magnetic materials and relieve internal stresses, enhancing magnetic properties.

Axially Magnetized

The term axially magnetized describes a magnet that is magnetized between two flat parallel surfaces.

B

B-H Curve (Magnetic Flux Density-Magnetic Field Curve)

Sometimes referred to as the ‘magnetization curve’ or ‘demagnetization curve’, the B-H curve is a graphical representation showing the relationship between magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetic field strength (H) required to demagnetize a specific magnet. The magnetic flux density increases in proportion to the field strength until it reaches a point of saturation and becomes constant even as the field strength continues to increase. Magnetic flux density is measured in Gauss (G) or Tesla (T), where 10,000 Gauss equals 1 Tesla. Magnetic field strength is measured in Oersteds (Oe).

Bar Magnet

A bar magnet is a permanent magnet with a magnetic length greater than its diameter or effective diameter for rectangular bar magnets. It has a north and a south pole typically at opposite ends of the bar.

Bi-pole Magnet

A magnet with two poles, one north and one south, which are the areas of strongest magnetic field.

Br (Residual Induction)

The maximum flux density a magnetic material can retain after the external magnetizing field is removed.

C

Closed Circuit

A closed magnetic circuit describes an arrangement of magnetic and ferrous material that directly connects the north pole of a magnet to the south. In a closed circuit, the lines of magnetic flux flow freely from north to south, and all the magnetic flux density is retained within the closed circuit. There is no external magnetic field as all the magnetism is consumed in the circuit.

Coercivity (Hc)

A measure of a magnet’s resistance to becoming demagnetized. High coercivity means the magnet can maintain its magnetism in challenging environments.

Composite Magnet

A magnet made from a mixture of magnetic and non-magnetic materials, often used to achieve specific properties or reduce costs.

Curie Temperature

The Curie temperature (Tc), or Curie point, is the temperature at which the atomic structure of a magnetic material is changed, causing the material to become demagnetized. Once heated to or past the Curie point, the magnetic domains of the material become randomized, resulting in permanent magnetic damage. As a result, the magnet will not emit any external magnetic fields.

D

Demagnetization

Demagnetization occurs when a magnet loses its external magnetic field in an open circuit. This can happen through physical stress, corrosion, heating the magnet beyond its maximum operating temperature, or exposing the material to a strong demagnetizing magnetic field. Generally, neodymium magnets cannot be re-magnetized once their magnetic properties are lost.

Demagnetization Curve

A plot showing how a magnet’s flux density decreases as the external demagnetizing field increases.

Density

Density is a measurement of a material’s mass per unit of volume. All materials have different densities, and a magnet’s density can allow you to calculate its weight. The density values for different types of magnetic material are as follows:

  • Neodymium magnets: up to 7.5g per cm³
  • Alnico magnets: 6.9 to 7.3g per cm³
  • Samarium cobalt magnets: 8.2 to 8.4g per cm³
  • Ceramic magnets: 5g per cm³
  • Flexible magnets: 3.5g per cm³

Diamagnetic

Diamagnetism is a type of magnetism that aligns itself at right angles to the direction of an object’s magnetic field, creating a repellent force. All materials are diamagnetic to a certain degree when exposed to an externally applied magnetic field. The effect is generally weak in most materials and is completely overpowered in materials that display other magnetic characteristics. However, the effects of diamagnetism can be enhanced by introducing superconductors into the magnetic circuit.

Diameter

Diameter applies to magnets that are round in shape and is the measurement taken from one side of a flat round surface to the other, cutting directly through the exact center of the object. The diameter is twice the radius of the magnet.

Diametrically Magnetized Magnets

Cylindrical magnets are described as diametrically magnetized when their direction of magnetism is parallel to the diameter of the magnet, rather than perpendicular to the flat faces of the cylinder.

Dimensional Tolerance

Magnets are produced in batches, and during the machining operations, the tolerance dictates the maximum and minimum permissible size. Neodymium magnets tend to have a standard tolerance of +/-0.1mm, although +/- 0.05mm can be achieved.

Dimensions

The finished size of a magnet, including all surface treatments such as coatings and platings.

Direction of Magnetization

Magnets can be specified and ordered to be magnetized across any axis, allowing them to be used to different effect. The direction of magnetism determines which side of the magnet the north and south poles appear. This has to be specified before manufacture as, for example, an anisotropic rectangular magnet can only be magnetized in one of the three possible directions.

Domains

Magnetic materials such as permanent magnets are split into individual microscopic domains. The magnetic domain structure of a material is responsible for its magnetic characteristics such as those displayed by metallic elements and alloys like permanent magnets. Each domain is a region that has a uniform direction of magnetization, but different domains may have different directions of magnetization. During the process of manufacturing magnetic material, electromagnets align each domain, providing the greatest magnetic energy and giving the finished material anisotropy.

E

Eddy Currents

Circulating currents induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field, often causing energy losses and heating.

Electromagnet

Unlike permanent magnets, the magnetic field exerted by an electromagnet is produced by the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Typically, an electromagnet consists of many turns of copper wire, forming a solenoid. When a DC electric current flows around the solenoid coil, a magnetic field is created. If an iron core is inserted into the bore of this solenoid, it becomes magnetic but immediately becomes nonmagnetic when the current stops flowing.

Epoxy Coating

A protective coating applied to magnets to prevent corrosion and mechanical damage.

F

Ferromagnetism

Ferromagnetism is the strongest form of magnetism and is the only form that creates forces strong enough to be noticed by human hands. A ferromagnetic substance is strongly attracted by a magnet.

Extended Reading: Ferromagnetic Vs. Paramagnetic Vs. Diamagnetic Explained.

Flux

Magnetic flux is the number of lines of magnetism traveling from a magnetic pole. The CGS unit of measurement for flux is Maxwells, and the SI unit is Webers.

Flux Density

Flux density describes the number of lines of magnetism in each square centimeter of pole area. The total number of magnetic field lines penetrating each 1cm x 1cm pole area is called the magnetic flux density, also known as magnetic induction. Flux density is measured in Gauss, or Tesla (10,000 Gauss = 1 Tesla).

G

Gauss

Named after the famous German mathematician and physicist Carl Friedrich Gauss, the Gauss is a unit of measurement for magnetic flux density. 1,000 Gauss is 1,000 lines of magnetism in each cm² of pole area.

Gauss Meter

A gauss meter is used to measure the flux density (Gauss) of a magnet. A gauss meter has a hall probe, which when placed onto a magnetic pole, will display the number of lines of magnetism within each cm² of pole area.

Grade

There are different types of magnets, such as neodymium, samarium cobalt, ceramic, and alnico. Each type is manufactured in various grades. The term grade defines the chemical characteristics of the material and its magnetic properties. Each grade of material, depending on its core elements and manufacturing process, will have different magnetic properties.

Gilbert

The Gilbert (G) is a unit to quantify magnetomotive force, named after William Gilbert, an English scientist and physician born in 1544, credited by many as the father of electricity and magnetism. An alternative measure for magnetomotive force is ampere-turns (At); the Gilbert (G) is a slightly smaller unit than ampere-turns. To convert from ampere-turns to Gilberts, multiply by 1.25664.

H

Halbach Array

An arrangement of permanent magnets that augments the magnetic field on one side while canceling it on the other side.

Homogeneous Field

A homogeneous magnetic field is one where the lines of the magnetic field are uniform, creating an equal force/current in all places within the field. Homogeneous fields are difficult to achieve with permanent magnets.

Horseshoe Magnet

A horseshoe magnet is a permanent magnet, usually made from alnico material, with a north pole on one tip and a south pole on the other. Horseshoe magnets are typically stronger than bar magnets as their pull is doubled when attached to a piece of ferrous material that spans both its poles, creating a closed circuit.

Hysteresis

The lag between changes in the magnetizing force and the resultant magnetization or demagnetization.

Hysteresis Loop

A four-quadrant graph showing the magnetizing force relative to resultant magnetization of a permanent magnet material as it is successively magnetized to its saturation point, then demagnetized, magnetized in the reverse polar direction, and then finally re-magnetized. When the cycles are complete, this graph forms a closed loop illustrating the magnetic characteristics of the material under test. Magnetically hard materials have a larger area inside the loop, indicating a higher level of magnetic energy, while magnetically soft materials have a smaller area as they lose magnetism when the magnetizing field is removed.

Hysteresis Loss

Energy lost in the form of heat due to the lagging of magnetic induction behind the magnetizing force.

I

ID (Inner Diameter)

The acronym ID refers to the measurement of the inner diameter of a magnet. For example, for a ring magnet, the inner diameter would be the measurement of the diameter of the center hole.

Induction (B)

Magnetic induction, also known as flux density, is the number of lines of magnetism in each square centimeter of pole area. The total number of magnetic field lines penetrating each 1cm x 1cm pole area is called the magnetic flux density, also known as magnetic induction. Flux density is measured in Gauss, or Tesla (10,000 Gauss = 1 Tesla).

Intrinsic Coercivity (Hci)

If the coercivity of a magnet is the force required to cancel out a saturated magnet’s magnetic field, the intrinsic coercivity is the force required to permanently demagnetize a magnet. Neodymium magnets have large differences between the coercivity and intrinsic coercivity, meaning it takes much more energy to permanently demagnetize them than to just equalize (reduce to zero) their magnetic field. Intrinsic coercivity is measured in kilo-Oersteds (kOe).

Irreversible Losses

Partial demagnetization can be caused by exposure to high temperatures, external magnetic fields, shock, or vibration. When exposed to certain conditions, a magnet will regain any magnetism lost. However, in extreme situations, the magnet will lose a percentage of its magnetism that won’t be recovered, known as irreversible losses. An example is exposing a magnet to temperatures exceeding its maximum operating temperature.

Isotropic

A magnet made of magnetically isotropic material has no preferred direction of magnetism and has the same properties along either axis. During manufacture, isotropic material can be manipulated so that the magnetic field is applied in any direction. Neodymium magnets are anisotropic due to their strength, whereas flexible magnets are usually isotropic, allowing all the magnetic field to be exerted from one side of the sheet.

K

Keeper

A keeper is a steel bar or disc placed between and attached to opposite poles of a magnet to allow all the magnetism to flow from one pole to the other. The keepered magnet will appear completely non-magnetic until the keeper is removed. Keepers were needed for old alnico magnets to preserve magnetism in these low coercivity magnets. This is useful if magnets need to be airfreighted and stray magnetism needs to be contained. Neodymium, samarium cobalt, and ceramic magnets do not need to be keepered to protect their magnetism; however, they are sometimes keepered to make them safer to handle.

L

Load Line

A line representing the operating point of a magnet on the demagnetization curve.

Laminations

Thin layers of magnetic material, often used in electrical machines to reduce eddy current losses.

M

Magnetic Anisotropy

The directional dependence of a material’s magnetic properties.

Magnetic Axis

In an anisotropic magnet, all of the magnet’s magnetic domains are aligned to face the same way. The line of direction that the domains follow is called the magnetic axis. An anisotropic magnet can only ever be magnetized along its magnetic axis.

Magnetic Circuit

All magnetism flows from north to south, and a magnetic circuit is the journey that it takes to get from north to south. Magnetism is usually generated by permanent or electromagnets and passes through magnetic paths within the circuit. The circuit may also include one or more air gaps filled with non-magnetic material. Magnetic circuits are used in devices such as motors, generators, and transformers as an efficient method of channeling magnetic fields.

Magnetic Domain

Magnetic materials such as permanent magnets are split into individual microscopic domains. The magnetic domain structure of a material is responsible for its magnetic characteristics. Each domain is a region with a uniform direction of magnetization, but different domains may have different directions of magnetization. During the manufacturing process, electromagnets align each domain, providing the greatest magnetic energy and giving the finished material anisotropy.

Magnetic Field Strength (H-field)

Magnetic field strength is the measure of a magnetizing field originating from an electrical current or a permanent magnet. It is measured in Oersteds (Oe).

Magnetic Induction (B-field)

The total number of magnetic field lines penetrating each 1cm x 1cm pole area is called the magnetic flux density, also known as magnetic induction. Flux density is measured in Gauss, or Tesla (10,000 Gauss = 1 Tesla).

Magnetic Length

Magnetic length refers to the dimension of a magnet that follows the direction of the magnet’s magnetic axis. A magnet’s magnetic length is always listed last when referring to its physical dimensions. For example, a bar magnet magnetized along its length might be described as 50mm x 50mm x 100mm.

Magnetization (M)

Magnetization refers to an object producing a magnetic field.

Magnetized

A material or magnet is defined as magnetized when it exerts a magnetic field, either because of its interaction with an electromagnet or another permanent magnet.

Magnetizing Field (H)

The magnetic field applied to a material to induce magnetization.

Magnetizing Force

The effort or intensity of the magnetic field applied to magnetize a material.

Magnetomotive Force (mmf)

Magnetomotive force is the magnetic field produced by a coil of wire when current is passed through it. The more current that is passed through a solenoid coil and the more coils the solenoid has, the larger the magnetic field produced. Magnetomotive force is expressed in ampere-turns, a value of the amount of applied current multiplied by the number of turns in a solenoid. Alternatively, it is sometimes measured in Gilberts.

Material

The term material refers to the physical composition of a magnet. For example, neodymium magnets are made out of a neodymium alloy (NdFeB) material containing neodymium (Nd), iron (Fe), and boron (B). There are five main types of magnetic material:

  • Neodymium
  • Alnico
  • Ceramic
  • Samarium Cobalt
  • Flexible magnets

Maximum Energy Product (BHmax)

The maximum energy product of a magnet is measured in Mega-Gauss Oersteds (MGOe). This value is the primary indicator of a magnet’s strength. In general, the higher the maximum energy product value, the greater the magnetic field the magnet will generate in a particular application. For neodymium grading, the two numbers in a grade name (e.g., N42) represent the maximum energy product for that grade. The higher the value, the greater the magnetic field strength and the smaller the volume of magnet required. (BH)max is a product of remanence (Br) and coercivity (Hc) and represents the area under the graph of the second quadrant hysteresis loop.

Maximum Operating Temperature (Tmax)

The maximum operating temperature represents the highest temperature that a particular grade of magnet can function at before becoming permanently demagnetized. All permanent magnets weaken in relation to their temperature coefficient, but as long as the maximum operating temperature is not exceeded, this is fully recoverable on cooling. If the maximum operating temperature is exceeded, the losses will not be fully recovered on cooling. Repeatedly heating a magnet above its maximum operating temperature and cooling will significantly demagnetize the magnet. Neodymium magnets operate best in cold temperatures down to approximately -130°C. Regular neodymium magnets maintain their magnetism up to 80°C, while different variants can operate up to 230°C.

Mega Gauss Oersteds (MGOe)

Mega Gauss Oersteds is the CGS measure of the maximum energy product of a magnet (BHmax). The five main types of magnet material have the following typical maximum energy products:

  • Neodymium: up to 52 MGOe
  • Alnico: up to 5.5 MGOe
  • Ceramic: up to 3.5 MGOe
  • Samarium Cobalt: up to 32 MGOe
  • Flexible magnets: up to 2 MGOe

M-H Loop (Hysteresis Loop)

Also known as the hysteresis loop, the M-H loop is a four-quadrant graph showing magnetizing force relative to resultant magnetization of a permanent magnet material as it is successively magnetized to its saturation point, then demagnetized, magnetized in the reverse polar direction, and finally re-magnetized. The closed loop illustrates the magnetic characteristics of the material under test. Magnetically hard materials have a larger area inside the loop, indicating a higher level of magnetic energy, while magnetically soft materials have a smaller area as they lose magnetism when the magnetizing field is removed.

Monopole

Currently, the existence of magnetic monopoles remains theoretical as their existence has not yet been proven. In theory, every magnet must have a north and south pole, and magnetism flows from one to the other. Without both poles, there is no flow of magnetism.

N

NdFeB (Neodymium Iron Boron)

A type of rare-earth magnet known for its high strength and resistance to demagnetization.

North Pole

The north pole of a magnet attracts to the earth’s geographic North Pole. As like poles repel and opposite poles attract, this means that the earth’s North Pole is actually a south pole (or a north-seeking pole).

NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance)

A technique that exploits the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei to determine physical and chemical properties of atoms or the molecules they are part of.

0

Oersted

The Oersted (Oe) is a measure for magnetic field strength, named after Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Oersted. In 1820, Oersted discovered the magnetic effect of electric current, contributing significantly to the study of magnetism. The Oersted is closely related to the Gauss measurement for flux density and is used to measure external electromagnetic forces usually produced in magnetizers and demagnetizers.

Open Circuit

A magnet is said to be in open circuit when it is not attached to any other ferrous material, meaning its lines of magnetic flux make their way from the north pole to the south pole through the air alone, rather than through a ferromagnetic material. Because it is more difficult for lines of magnetic flux to travel through air, a magnet produces less Gauss when in open circuit.

Orientation

A magnet’s orientation refers to the physical location and direction of its magnetic poles, e.g., through length, thickness, diameter, axially, radially, or diametrically.

P

Permeability

Some materials, when placed inside a magnetic field, become magnetized themselves. The permeability of a magnetic substance represents the increase or decrease of the magnetic field inside the substance compared to the magnetizing field that the substance is located within. Simply put, it is the ability for a material to acquire its own magnetism or for magnetism to flow through it. Ferromagnetic metals have the greatest permeability of all substances and will become magnetized when exposed to a magnetic field. The rate of magnetic permeability will increase until the substance reaches a point of saturation. Soft ferromagnetic materials are easily magnetized but lose most of their magnetism once the external field is removed. Hard ferromagnetic materials are difficult to magnetize, but once they are, they will remain magnetized.

Permanent Magnet

A permanent magnet is a solid material that produces its own consistent magnetic field because the material is magnetized. A permanent magnet is different from an electromagnet, which only acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through its coils.

Want to know more about Permanent Magnet? Check out our Blog Article-Permanent Magnet 101: What is a Permanent Magnet? 

Piezoelectric

Materials that generate an electric charge in response to mechanical stress and can also change shape when an electric field is applied.

Plating

Plating, also known as coating, is applied to raw neodymium magnets to prevent corrosion and demagnetization. The most common coating is a layer of nickel, followed by a layer of copper, and then another layer of nickel. Various coatings and platings can be provided for bespoke applications, including:

  • Rubber
  • Nickel (Ni)
  • Epoxy
  • Zinc (Zn)
  • Gold (Au)
  • Tin (Sn)
  • Titanium (Ti)
  • Titanium Nitride (TiN)
  • Parylene C
  • Everlube
  • Chrome
  • Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, also known as Teflon Ni-Cu-Ni plus Epoxy)
  • Nickel-Copper-Nickel plus Rubber
  • Zinc plus Rubber
  • Nickel-Copper-Nickel plus Parylene
  • Nickel-Copper-Nickel plus PTFE
  • Tin plus Parylene
  • Zinc Chromate
  • Phosphate Passivation

Polarity

All magnets have both a north and a south pole, usually 180° apart. Polarity refers to a magnet’s magnetic orientation with regards to its poles. Opposite poles attract each other, but similar poles repel.

Pole

The pole of a magnet is the area with the greatest magnetic field strength in a given direction. Each pole is either north-facing or south-facing.

Pull-gap Curve

A pull-gap curve plots the pulling power of a magnet in direct contact with a thick and flat piece of steel and then through a steadily increasing range of air gaps. Pull follows an inverse square law relationship with distance. High field gradient magnets have the highest clamping forces in direct contact with ferrous material (zero air gap) but the weakest pull through steadily increasing air gaps. Low field gradient magnets have the lowest clamping forces in direct contact with ferrous material (zero air gap) but the highest pull through steadily increasing air gaps. A high field gradient magnet’s pull-gap curve and a low field gradient magnet’s pull-gap curve will cross over if plotted on the same graph.

Pull Strength

The pull strength is the highest possible holding power of a magnet, measured in kilograms. It is the force required to prise a magnet away from a flat surface of steel when the magnet and metals have full and direct surface-to-surface contact. The grade of the metal, surface condition, and angle of pull all impact the pull strength.

R

Rare-earth Metals

Rare-earth metals are categorized in the periodic table in the group known as Lanthanides. The most common elements in this category are neodymium, samarium, and dysprosium. Despite the name, rare-earth elements are relatively abundant in the earth’s crust, but they are not typically found in economically exploitable deposits and are often dispersed, deriving the term rare-earth.

Remanence (Br)

Remanence is the magnetism left in a magnet after the removal of the external magnetic force applied to magnetize it. When a material has been magnetized, it has remanence, as the magnetism has at some point been induced by an external magnetic field.

Reluctance

The opposition that a magnetic material offers to the passage of magnetic flux, similar to electrical resistance in a circuit.

Repelling

When two magnets are placed close together with the same poles facing each other, e.g., north facing north or south facing south, they will always repel one another. The reason for this is that the magnetic fields generated by each magnet are trying to flow in the same direction, and when placed close together, they collide, having a repellent effect.

S

Saturation

The state when a magnetic material has reached its maximum magnetization and cannot be further magnetized.

Shear Force / Sliding Resistance

As a rule of thumb, it is five times easier to slide a magnet than to pull it vertically off the surface of a ferrous material. When a magnet slides on steel, the coefficient of friction is approximately 0.2, and this is how the five times is derived. Magnets attached to a vertical steel wall will slide down the wall when only 20% of the rated pull is experienced as a load. Rubber-coated magnets have a much higher coefficient of friction and therefore will resist sliding at a much higher rate because of the friction caused by the coating. If the vertical wall is made of thin sheet steel that cannot absorb all the magnetism generated by the magnet, then the holding force will be reduced further.

Single Domain Particle

A particle that is so small there is no room for a magnetic domain wall, making it a tiny but very strong magnet. All magnetic recording tapes are made using such particles.

Soft Magnet

Materials that can be easily magnetized and demagnetized, often used in transformers and inductors.

South Pole

In magnetic terms, this is the specific pole of the magnet which seeks the earth’s geographic South Pole. The earth’s geographic South Pole actually has a magnetic north polarity, thus greatly confusing the issue.

Stacking

Stacking refers to placing magnets together to increase the net pull strength. When five magnets are stacked together to make one magnet that is five times thicker, this magnet will be substantially more powerful because of the increase in its L/d ratio (length to diameter). Once the length of the magnet exceeds the diameter, the magnet is working at an optimum level, and further additions to magnetic length will provide only small increases in performance.

Superconducting Magnet

A type of magnet made from superconducting wire that can conduct electricity without resistance, often used in medical imaging and scientific research.

Surface Field / Surface Gauss

The surface field strength is measured in Gauss and is the magnet’s maximum field strength taken from the magnet’s pole surface. Measurements are usually taken using a gauss meter.

T

Temperature Coefficient (T)

Temperature coefficient is a factor used to calculate the decrease in magnetic flux corresponding to an increase in operating temperature. The loss in magnetic flux is recovered when the operating temperature is decreased, provided the maximum operating temperature is not exceeded. The temperature coefficients for magnetic materials are typically:

  • Neodymium: 0.11% per degree C rise in temperature
  • Alnico: 0.02% per degree C rise in temperature
  • Ceramic: 0.2% per degree C rise in temperature
  • Samarium Cobalt: 0.03% per degree C rise in temperature
  • Flexible magnets: 0.2% per degree C rise in temperature

Temporary Magnet

A magnet that only maintains its magnetism while in the presence of a magnetic field or electric current.

Tesla (T)

The Tesla is a unit of measurement for magnetic flux density, named after Nikola Tesla, a Serbian-American inventor, engineer, and physicist. One Tesla is equal to 10,000 Gauss.

Thread

Some magnets are manufactured to include a thread for fixing in their applications. Neodymium magnets themselves are generally not threaded as they are too brittle; instead, a neodymium magnet will be fixed to or encased within another material that will be threaded.

Tunneling Magnetoresistance (TMR)

A magnetic effect used in hard disk drives where the resistance of a junction between ferromagnetic layers changes depending on the relative alignment of the magnetizations.

U

Undulator

A device that uses a periodic structure of magnets to produce a magnetic field that undulates spatially, commonly used in synchrotron radiation facilities.

V

Vacuum Permeability

A physical constant that describes the magnetic permeability of a vacuum, often denoted as μ₀.

Vortex Magnet

A magnet with a vortex-like magnetic field pattern, used in certain types of magnetic research and applications.

W

Weber

A unit of magnetic flux. One weber is equal to one tesla per square meter.

Y

Yoke

A piece of magnetic material that connects the poles of a magnet or electromagnet to provide a closed magnetic path, enhancing magnetic efficiency.

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